1. “American Academy of Pediatrics Calls for More Support for Breastfeeding Mothers Within Updated Policy Recommendations,” American Academy of Pediatrics, June 27, 2022.
2. Mike Xue et al., “Breastfeeding and Risk of Childhood Asthma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” ERJ Open Research 7, no. 4 (October 2021); and Fange Liu et al., “Breastfeeding and Overweight/Obesity Among Children and Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional Study,” BMC Pediatrics 22, no. 346 (June 16, 2022); M. M. Vennemann et al., “Does Breastfeeding Reduce the Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome?,” Pediatrics 123, no. 3 (March 2009); Nicolai A. Lund-Blix et al., “Infant Feeding and Risk of Type 1 Diabetes in Two Large Scandinavian Birth Cohorts,” Diabetes Care 40, no. 7 (July 2017): 920–27; and Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity, “Breastfeeding Benefits Both Baby and Mom,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, updated December 14, 2023.
3. “American Academy of Pediatrics Calls for More Support for Breastfeeding Mothers Within Updated Policy Recommendations,” American Academy of Pediatrics, June 27, 2022; and “Breastfeeding,” World Health Organization.
4. Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity, “Breastfeeding Benefits Both Baby and Mom,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, updated December 14, 2023; Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity, “Breastfeeding Benefits Both Baby and Mom,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, updated December 14, 2023; and Stephanie M. Quintero et al., “Race/Ethnicity-Specific Associations between Breastfeeding Information Source and Breastfeeding Rates among US Women,” BMC Public Health 23, no. 520 (March 17, 2023). See also Rachel Crumpler, “Black Mothers Face Disproportionate Barriers to Breastfeeding,” North Carolina Health News, August 25, 2022.
5. Office of the Surgeon General, The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding: Barriers to Breastfeeding in the United States (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2011).
6. Erika C. Odom et al., “Reasons for Earlier than Desired Cessation of Breastfeeding,” Pediatrics 131, no. 3 (February 18, 2013): 726–32.
7. Joan Younger Meek et al., “Landscape Analysis of Breastfeeding-Related Physician Education in the United States,” Breastfeed Med 15, no. 6 (June 2020): 401–11.
8. Sanjay Patel and Shveta Patel, “The Effectiveness of Lactation Consultants and Lactation Counselors on Breastfeeding Outcomes,” Journal of Human Lactation 32, no. 3 (December 7, 2015). See also Donna J. Chapman et al., “Effectiveness of Breastfeeding Peer Counseling in a Low-Income Predominately Latina Population: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 158, no. 9 (September 2004): 897–902; Donna J. Chapman et al., “Review: Breastfeeding Peer Counseling: From Efficacy Through Scale-Up,” Journal of Human Lactation 26, no. 3 (August 5, 2010): 314–26; Debbie G. Long et al., “Peer Counselor Program Increases Breastfeeding Rates in Utah Native American WIC Population,” Journal of Human Lactation 11, no. 4 (December 1995): 279–84; and Karen A. Bonuck et al., “Randomized, Controlled Trial of a Prenatal and Postnatal Lactation Consultant Intervention on Duration and Intensity of Breastfeeding up to 12 Months,” Pediatrics 116, no. 6 (2005): 1413–26.
9. Fact vs. Fiction: The IBCLC and CLC (US Lactation Consultant Association, July 2016).
10. “Our Story,” La Leche League International, updated September 2023.
11. La Leche League also refers to their volunteer leaders as breastfeeding counselors. “La Leche League Meetings,” La Leche League International, February 2020; “Volunteer as a Leader,” La Leche League International; and “Frequently Asked Questions,” La Leche League International.
12. Karen Wambach and Jan Riordan, Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, 5th ed. (Jones and Bartlett Learning, 2016), pp. 1–19.
13. “History,” International Board of Lactation Consultant Examiners; and Charles Carter and Elizabeth G. Baxley, “Postpartum Biomedical Concerns: Breastfeeding,” Family Medicine Obstetrics, 3rd ed. (2008): 618–43.
14. As of January 3, 2023, there were over 19,000 International Board Certified Lactation Consultants (IBCLCs) in the United States and more than 35,000 worldwide. “Current Statistics on Worldwide IBCLCs,” International Board of Lactation Consultant Examiners, updated April 6, 2023; and “Current Statistics on Worldwide IBCLCs,” International Board of Lactation Consultant Examiners, updated July 2, 2020.
15. Karen Wambach and Jan Riordan, Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, 5th ed. (Jones and Bartlett Learning, 2016), pp. 1–19.
16. The ANSI National Accreditation Board accredits the Academy of Lactation Policy and Practice’s Certified Lactation Counselor certification. “About Us,” Academy of Lactation Policy and Practice, updated March 9, 2021.
17. “Clarifying Clinical Lactation Care vs Breastfeeding Support,” US Lactation Consultant Association, May 2020.
18. The US Lactation Consultant Association (USCLA) argues that “efforts to integrate licensing of those who practice lactation care should be accomplished in an inclusive manner that does not restrict the practice of any providers not addressed in the licensing requirements.” “Licensure,” USCLA; and “Model Bill,” USCLA.
19. H.R. 7914, 2014 Sess., Gen. Assemb., (R.I. 2014); and <216>-<40> R.I. Code R. § 40–05-27 (2015).
20. H.R. 138, 53rd Leg., 1st Sess. (N.M. 2017); N.M. Code R. § 16.12.11 (2018); H.R. 2503, 79th Leg. Assemb., Reg. Sess. (Or. 2027); Or. Admin. R. <331–475-0005> (2017).
21. H.R. 649, 152nd Gen. Assemb., Reg. Sess. (Ga. 2016).
22. Jaimie Cavanaugh, “Breastfeeding Can Be Difficult, but a Law to License Lactation Consultants May Make It Even Harder,” NBC News, August 1, 2018.
23. “Reaching Our Sisters Everywhere, Inc,” Institute for Justice, June 25, 2018.
24. Raffensperger v. Jackson et al., 316 Ga. 383 (2023); and Kayla Goggin, “Georgia Lactation Consultant Licensing Law Struck Down by State High Court,” Courthouse News Service, May 31, 2023.
25. S. 407, 2019 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Pa. 2019); S. A2297, 2019 Gen. Assemb., Reg. Sess. (N.Y. 2021); S. A235A, 2019 Assemb., Reg. Sess. (N.Y. 2015); S. 1126, 220th Leg., Reg. Sess. (N.J. 2022); H.R. 3626, 193rd Gen. Ct., Reg. Sess. (Mass. 2023); S. 1151, 90th Sess., Reg. Sess. (Minn. 201); S. 2707, 2019 Leg., Reg. Sess., (Miss. 2019); H.R. 2131, 57th Leg., Reg. Sess., (Okla. 2019); S. 1978, 113th Gen. Assemb., Reg. Sess., (Tenn. 2016); H.R. 2057, 88th Leg., Reg. Sess., (Tex. 2023); H.R. 3976, 84th Leg., Reg. Sess., (Tex. 2015); and H.R. 1072, 87th Leg. Reg. Sess., (Tex. 2021).
26. “Lactation Consultant Sunrise Review,” Washington State Department of Health, December 2016, p. 13.
27. “Lactation Consultant Sunrise Review,” Washington State Department of Health, December 2016, p. 3.
28. “Lactation Consultant Sunrise Review,” Washington State Department of Health, December 2016, p. 3.
29. Peter Q. Blair, “New Frontiers in Occupational Licensing Research,” The Reporter, no. 1, March 2022; and Morris M. Kleiner and Evgeny S. Vorotnikov, At What Cost? State and National Estimates of the Economic Costs of Occupational Licensing (Institute for Justice, November 2018).
30. David R. Henderson, “Rent Seeking,” Econlib.
31. Patrick McLaughlin, Matthew D. Mitchell, and Anne Philpot, “The Effects of Occupational Licensure on Competition, Consumers, and the Workforce,” Mercatus Center, November 3, 2017.
32. Morris M. Kleiner and Evgeny S. Vorotnikov, At What Cost? State and National Estimates of Economic Costs of Occupational Licensing (Institute for Justice, November 2018) p. 10.
33. Shirley V. Svorny, “Medical Licensing: An Obstacle to Affordable, Quality Care,” Cato Institute Policy Analysis no. 621, September 17, 2008.
34. Shirley V. Svorny, “Beyond Medical Licensure,” Regulation 38, no. 1 (Spring 2015): 26–29; and Shirley V. Svorny, “Medical Licensing: An Obstacle to Affordable, Quality Care,” Cato Institute Policy Analysis no. 621, September 17, 2008. See also Shirley Svorny and Michael F. Cannon, “Health Care Workforce Reform: COVID-19 Spotlights Need for Changes to Clinician Licensing,” Cato Institute Policy Analysis no. 899, August 4, 2020.
35. Christina Sandefur, Byron Schlomach, and Murray Feldstein, “A Win‐Win for Consumers and Professionals Alike: An Alternative to Occupational Licensing,” Goldwater Institute and 1889 Institute, November 15, 2018.